The situation deteriorated in the late 12th century under the reign of King Richard I (Richard the Lionheart). In 1189, upon his coronation, a violent riot broke out in London during which many Jews were attacked, and some were killed. This violence spread across the country, signaling the growing d

One of the darkest moments in medieval English history occurred in the city of York in 1190, when an entire Jewish community was attacked and many of its members were brutally killed in what is now known as the massacre at Clifford’s Tower. This tragic event stands as a stark reminder of the w

These collective nouns, still in use today, remind us of how deeply the medieval worldview influenced the English language. Just as the extravagance of some nuns reveals tensions between ideals and realities within religious life, the vivid and often metaphorical collective nouns encapsulate the val

While the extravagance of nuns provides a window into the socio-economic dynamics of medieval religious life, the language of the period offers a unique insight into the era’s culture and social groups. Collective nouns—terms describing groups of people or animals—often emerged fro